Below, you’ll find a selection of published studies and articles detailing the conditions for which neurofeedback has been reported to assist.
A comprehensive bibliography of scientific research can be found at ISNR.org.
How to read these citations. Neurofeedback is not one technology. Most published research studies EEG-based neurofeedback, which trains the brain toward preset targets using reward-based feedback. Microcurrent neurofeedback, the approach we use, works differently and has a much smaller research base of its own. Rather than blur the two together, every study below is labeled by what it actually examined, and some are listed as background research on the condition rather than on neurofeedback at all. We’d rather point that out ourselves than have you notice it later.
We’re not licensed physicians, and we don’t diagnose or treat specific conditions. What we offer is neurofeedback training aimed at supporting the brain’s own self-regulation, used alongside other care rather than in place of it. Many clients report real improvements in mental clarity, emotional balance, and overall well-being — though, as with anything, individual experiences vary.
Individuals with attention challenges often experience distractibility, impulsivity, and difficulty maintaining focus. These challenges aren't a sign of laziness — research increasingly points to a real basis in brain function. Neurofeedback offers a different approach by training the brain's own self-regulation, used alongside, not in place of, other care.
Many families who try it report better focus, fewer impulsive moments, and steadier follow-through over time, though individual experiences vary. The studies below go into the research in more depth.
Broader neurofeedback research
Efficacy of neurofeedback treatment in ADHD: the effects on inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity
by Arns M, de Ridder S, Strehl U, Breteler M and Coenen A
Journal of Clinical EEG & Neuroscience, July, 2009
ABSTRACT
Since the first reports of neurofeedback treatment in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in 1976, many studies have investigated the effects of neurofeedback on different symptoms of ADHD such as inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity. This technique is also used by many practitioners, but the question as to the evidence-based level of this treatment is still unclear. In this study selected research on neurofeedback treatment for ADHD was collected and a meta-analysis was performed.
Place of EEG Biofeedback for ADHD
by Hirshberg LM
Expert Review Neurotherapeutics, 7(4), 315-319
ABSTRACT
Although methodological weaknesses limited early research into electroencephalograpic (EEG) biofeedback (EBF) for treatment of attention-deficit/hyperacticity disorder (ADHD), recent stronger randomized controlled trials have provided substantial, but not yet conclusive, empirical support. Additional support is found in research on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) feedback and brain-computer interface (BCI) models which involve feedback-guided learning to achieve control over neural activation.
EEG Biofeedback in the Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
by Friel PN
Alternative Medicine Review, Volume 12, #2, June, 2007, pp146-151
ABSTRACT
Electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback, also known as neurofeedback, is a promising alternative treatment for patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). EEG biofeedback therapy rewards scalp EEG frequencies that are associated with relaxed attention, and suppresses frequencies associated with under- or over-arousal.
Electroencephalographic Biofeedback in the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
By Monastra VJ, Lynn S, Linden M, Lubar JF, Gruzelier J, LaVaque TJ Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 2005; 30(2): 95-114
ABSTRACT
Historically, pharmacological treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been considered to be the only type of interventions effective for reducing the core symptoms of this condition. However, during the past three decades, a series of case and controlled group studies examining the effects of EEG biofeedback have reported improved attention and behavioral control, increased cortical activation on quantitative electroencephalographic examination, and gains on tests of intelligence and academic achievement in response to this type of treatment.
Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder with Neurotherapy
By Nash JK Clinical Electroencephalography, 2000; 31(1): 30-37
ABSTRACT
Significant public health concerns exist regarding our current level of success in treating ADHD. Medication management is very helpful in 60-70% of patients. Side effects, lack of compliance and the fact that stimulant medications cannot be given late in the day limit the benefits largely to school hours.
Background research on the condition
Update on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
by Campbell Daley K Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 2004; 16(2): 217-226
ABSTRACT
In her recent paper, Update on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, published in Current Opinion in Pediatrics, Katie Campbell Daley reviewed the research and practice standards on treatment of ADHD. Dr. Campbell is on the staff of the Department of Medicine, Children’s Hospital Boston and in the Department of Pediatrics of the Harvard Medical School
For those dealing with overwhelming stress and constant worry, life can feel exhausting and tense. Some people show visible signs of that tension; others seem calm on the surface while their thoughts stay persistently disruptive, affecting sleep and day-to-day quality of life.
Neurofeedback is one tool for learning to calm and quiet the mind. Many clients report a real reduction in stress and an easier time settling, though experiences vary person to person, and this works best alongside, not instead of, other care you're already receiving.
Research on microcurrent neurofeedback
The effectiveness of microcurrent neurofeedback on depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and quality of life
Duke, Gloria PhD, RN (Professor)1; Yotter, Courtney N. MS, CCRP, PMP (Statistical Consultant)2; Sharifian, Beverly MS, APCC (Associate Professional Clinical Counselor and Psychometrist)3; Duke, Gary MA, LPC (Counselor, IASIS Microcurrent Neurofeedback Practitioner)4; Petersen, Sandra DNP, APRN, FNP-BD, GNP-BC, PMHNP-BE, FAANP (Professor)5
ABSTRACT
The world faces a mental health crisis with elevated rates of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress, leaving a profound impact on daily quality of life (QOL). Current treatments show varying degrees of efficacy and carry burdensome challenges. Evidence exists for use of an innovative neurotechnology to reduce symptoms of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but the science is lacking for use in the general population.
Broader neurofeedback research
Orbitofrontal cortex neurofeedback produces lasting changes in contamination anxiety and resting-state connectivity
D Scheinost, T Stoica, J Saksa, X Papademetris, RT Constable, C Pittenger and M Hampson From Translational Psychiatry (2013)
ABSTRACT
Anxiety is a core human emotion but can become pathologically dysregulated. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) neurofeedback (NF) to noninvasively alter patterns of brain connectivity, as measured by resting-state fMRI, and to reduce contamination anxiety. Activity of a region of the orbitofrontal cortex associated with contamination anxiety was measured in real time and provided to subjects with significant but subclinical anxiety as a NF signal, permitting them to learn to modulate the target brain region. NF altered network connectivity of brain regions involved in anxiety regulation: subjects exhibited reduced resting-state connectivity in limbic circuitry and increased connectivity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. NF has been shown to alter brain connectivity in other contexts, but it has been unclear whether these changes persist; critically, we observed changes in connectivity several days after the completion of NF training, demonstrating that such training can lead to lasting modifications of brain functional architecture. Training also increased subjects’ control over contamination anxiety several days after the completion of NF training. Changes in resting-state connectivity in the target orbitofrontal region correlated with these improvements in anxiety. Matched subjects undergoing a sham feedback control task showed neither a reorganization of resting-state functional connectivity nor an improvement in anxiety. These data suggest that NF can enable enhanced control over anxiety by persistently reorganizing relevant brain networks and thus support the potential of NF as a clinically useful therapy.
Feeling sad or low from time to time is common and often passes on its own. For some people, though, that feeling persists longer and starts affecting daily life. Some research points to a neurological component alongside the psychological one, with certain brain patterns showing up more often in people experiencing prolonged low mood.
Neurofeedback is one approach for training the brain toward healthier mood regulation. Many clients report noticing a difference within the first several sessions, though continued training tends to matter for it to stick, and this isn't a replacement for other mental health care.
Research on microcurrent neurofeedback
The effectiveness of microcurrent neurofeedback on depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and quality of life
Duke, Gloria PhD, RN (Professor)1; Yotter, Courtney N. MS, CCRP, PMP (Statistical Consultant)2; Sharifian, Beverly MS, APCC (Associate Professional Clinical Counselor and Psychometrist)3; Duke, Gary MA, LPC (Counselor, IASIS Microcurrent Neurofeedback Practitioner)4; Petersen, Sandra DNP, APRN, FNP-BD, GNP-BC, PMHNP-BE, FAANP (Professor)5
ABSTRACT
The world faces a mental health crisis with elevated rates of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress, leaving a profound impact on daily quality of life (QOL). Current treatments show varying degrees of efficacy and carry burdensome challenges. Evidence exists for use of an innovative neurotechnology to reduce symptoms of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but the science is lacking for use in the general population.
Broader neurofeedback research
Real-Time Self-Regulation of Emotion Networks in Patients with Depression (PDF)
David E. J. Linden, Isabelle Habes, Stephen J. Johnston, Stefanie Linden, Ranjit Tatineni, Leena Subramanian, Bettina Sorger, David Healy1, Rainer Goebe
ABSTRACT
Many patients show no or incomplete responses to current pharmacological or psychological therapies for depression. Here we explored the feasibility of a new brain self-regulation technique that integrates psychological and neurobiological approaches through neurofeedback with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In a proof-of-concept study, eight patients with depression learned to upregulate brain areas involved in the generation of positive emotions (such as the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) and insula) during four neurofeedback sessions. Their clinical symptoms, as assessed with the 17-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HDRS), improved significantly. A control group that underwent a training procedure with the same cognitive strategies but without neurofeedback did not improve clinically. Randomized blinded clinical trials are now needed to exclude possible placebo effects and to determine whether fMRI-based neurofeedback might become a useful adjunct to current therapies for depression.
Substance dependence is often misunderstood as a matter of willpower, when it's really a complex, brain-based condition — one that can carry real guilt, shame, and frustration on top of the dependence itself.
Clear Mind Utah doesn't market neurofeedback as an addiction treatment program, and it isn't the reason most clients come to us. That said, some clients who came in for something else entirely — anxiety, sleep, stress — have told us, unprompted, that they noticed fewer cravings along the way. We think that's worth mentioning honestly, as an observed secondary effect, not a promise, and not a substitute for real addiction treatment and support.
We’re not the only ones who’ve noticed it. Matthew’s Hope, a nonprofit detox and intensive outpatient program in Houston, builds microcurrent neurofeedback into its substance use recovery protocols as a standing part of the program, including two years of free microcurrent neurofeedback aftercare for people leaving treatment. In 2026, the University of Alabama also completed a randomized pilot trial looking at whether adding microcurrent neurofeedback to standard residential care helps with substance cravings. Its findings haven’t been published yet, so there’s nothing to draw from it. But people who work in addiction recovery full time are clearly taking the question seriously.
Broader neurofeedback research
Neurofeedback Training for Opiate Addiction: Improvement of Mental Health and Craving
Fateme Dehghani-Arani, Reza Rostami, and Hosein Nadali
Published online: 20 April 2013
ABSTRACT
Psychological improvements in patients with substance use disorders have been reported after neurofeedback treatment. However, neurofeedback has not been commonly accepted as a treatment for substance dependence. This study was carried out to examine the effectiveness of this therapeutic method for opiate dependence disorder. The specific aim was to investigate whether treatment leads to any changes in mental health and substance craving. In this experimental study with a pre-post test design, 20 opiate dependent patients undergoing Methadone or Buprenorphine maintenance treatment were examined and matched and randomized into two groups. While both experimental and control groups received their usual maintenance treatment, the experimental group received 30 sessions of neurofeedback treatment in addition. The neurofeedback treatment consisted of sensory motor rhythm training on Cz, followed by an alpha-theta protocol on Pz. Data from the general health questionnaire and a heroin craving questionnaire were collected before and after treatment. Multivariate analysis of covariance showed that the experimental group achieved improvement in somatic symptoms, depression, and total score in general mental health; and in anticipation of positive outcome, desire to use opioid, and relief from withdrawal of craving in comparison with the control group. The study supports the effectiveness of neurofeedback training as a therapeutic method in opiate dependence disorder, in supplement to pharmacotherapy.
Millions of Americans deal with chronic insomnia every year, plus many more with occasional sleep trouble. Neurofeedback is one tool that can help some people fall asleep and stay asleep more easily by training the nervous system toward a calmer baseline.
Reports of improvement are common among practitioners in the field, though, as with anything, individual experiences vary, and lifestyle and sleep-hygiene changes matter too. We're happy to talk through your specific sleep history and whether this might be a good fit.
Broader neurofeedback research
Neurofeedback in ADHD and insomnia: vigilance stabilization through sleep spindles and circadian networks
Arns M, Kenemans JL. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23099283
ABSTRACT
In this review article an overview of the history and current status of neurofeedback for the treatment of ADHD and insomnia is provided. Recent insights suggest a central role of circadian phase delay, resulting in sleep onset insomnia (SOI) in a sub-group of ADHD patients. Chronobiological treatments, such as melatonin and early morning bright light, affect the suprachiasmatic nucleus. This nucleus has been shown to project to the noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC) thereby explaining the vigilance stabilizing effects of such treatments in ADHD. It is hypothesized that both Sensori-Motor Rhythm (SMR) and Slow-Cortical Potential (SCP) neurofeedback impact on the sleep spindle circuitry resulting in increased sleep spindle density, normalization of SOI and thereby affect the noradrenergic LC, resulting in vigilance stabilization. After SOI is normalized, improvements on ADHD symptoms will occur with a delayed onset of effect. Therefore, clinical trials investigating new treatments in ADHD should include assessments at follow-up as their primary endpoint rather than assessments at outtake. Furthermore, an implication requiring further study is that neurofeedback could be stopped when SOI is normalized, which might result in fewer sessions.
Neurofeedback isn't meant to stop a migraine that's already underway — the goal is reducing how often and how intensely they occur over time.
A study by Deborah Stokes, Ph.D. and Martha S. Lappin, “Neurofeedback and Biofeedback with 37 Migraineurs: A Clinical Outcome Study,” found meaningful improvement in migraine frequency among participants. That's a small, single study, not a guarantee — but it lines up with what we've seen in our own practice too, where clients dealing with migraines have reported real, lasting improvement over a course of sessions.
Broader neurofeedback research
Neurofeedback and biofeedback with 37 migraineurs: a clinical outcome study (PDF)
Deborah A Stokes, Martha S Lappin Behavioral and Brain Functions 2010, 6:9
ABSTRACT
Traditional peripheral biofeedback has grade A evidence for effectively treating migraines. Two newer forms of neurobiofeedback, EEG biofeedback and hemoencephalography biofeedback were combined with thermal handwarming biofeedback to treat 37 migraineurs in a clinical outpatient setting. Methods: 37 migraine patients underwent an average of 40 neurofeedback sessions combined with thermal biofeedback in an outpatient biofeedback clinic. All patients were on at least one type of medication for migraine; preventive, abortive or rescue. Patients kept daily headache diaries a minimum of two weeks prior to treatment and throughout treatment showing symptom frequency, severity, duration and medications used. Treatments were conducted an average of three times weekly over an average span of 6 months. Headache diaries were examined after treatment and a formal interview was conducted. After an average of 14.5 months following treatment, a formal interview was conducted in order to ascertain duration of treatment effects.
Pain is one of the body's key signals, and chronic pain can be exhausting to live with day after day. Neurofeedback takes a different angle on this — training the brain's own processing of pain signals rather than targeting the site of pain directly.
Some clients dealing with chronic pain report real relief with this approach, alongside whatever other care they're already receiving; it isn't a replacement for medical treatment of the underlying cause.
Broader neurofeedback research
Treatment of fibromyalgia incorporating EEG-Driven stimulation: a clinical outcomes study
Mueller HH, Donaldson CC, Nelson DV, Layman M Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2001; 57(7): 933-952 (EEG-driven stimulation; uncontrolled prospective series, n=30)
ABSTRACT
Thirty patients from a private clinical practice who met the 1990 American College of Rheumatology criteria for fibromyalgia syndrome (FS) were followed prospectively through a brainwave-based intervention known as electroencephalograph (EEG)-driven stimulation or EDS. Patients were initially treated with EDS until they reported noticeable improvements in mental clarity, mood, and sleep. Self-reported pain, then, having changed from vaguely diffuse to more specifically localized, was treated with very modest amounts of physically oriented therapies. Pre- to posttreatment and extended follow-up comparisons of psychological and physical functioning indices, specific FS symptom ratings, and EEG activity revealed statistically significant improvements. EDS appeared to be the prime initiator of therapeutic efficacy. Future research is justified for controlled clinical trials and to better understand disease mechanisms.
Neurofeedback has been used by clinicians with children on the autism spectrum for years, and there's a real, growing body of research looking at how it may help. One of the first things many parents notice is a child seeming calmer and more able to handle big emotions without becoming as easily overwhelmed.
Every child is different, and neurofeedback isn't a treatment for autism itself — it's a nervous-system-support tool some families find helpful alongside the therapies and supports already in place.
Background research on the condition
QEEG characteristics and spectrum weighted frequency for children diagnosed as autistic spectrum disorder (PDF)
Nada Pop-Jordanova, Tatjana Zorcec, Aneta Demerdzieva, Zoran Gucev Pop-Jordanova et al. Nonlinear Biomedical Physics 2010
ABSTRACT
Autistic spectrum disorders are a group of neurological and developmental disorders associated with social, communication, sensory, behavioral and cognitive impairments, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, activities, or interests. The aim of this study was a) to analyze QEEG findings of autistic patients and to compare the results with data base; and b) to introduce the calculation of spectrum weighted frequency (brain rate) as an indicator of general mental arousal in these patients. Results: Results for Q-EEG shows generally increased delta-theta activity in frontal region of the brain. Changes in QEEG pattern appeared to be in a non-linear correlation with maturational processes. Brain rate measured in CZ shows slow brain activity (5. 86) which is significantly lower than normal and corresponds to low general mental arousal. Recent research has shown that autistic disorders have as their basis disturbances of neural connectivity. Neurofeedback seems capable of remediating such disturbances when these data are considered as part of treatment planning. Conclusions: Prognosis of this pervasive disorder depends on the intellectual abilities: the better intellectual functioning, the possibilities for life adaptation are higher QEEG shows generally increased delta-theta activity in frontal region of the brain which is related to poor cognitive abilities. Brain rate measured in CZ shows slow brain activity related to under arousal. Pharmacotherapy combined with behavior therapy, social support and especially neurofeedback technique promise slight improvements.
Stress from traumatic experiences can be deeply disruptive, and many people try several different therapies and approaches looking for relief. Neurofeedback is one option that works alongside trauma-focused therapy and care, not instead of it — training the nervous system toward a calmer baseline.
Clients often notice sleep improving first, with other changes following more gradually over a course of sessions. For more on the research behind this specifically, see our dedicated page on neurofeedback for PTSD.
Broader neurofeedback research
A Randomized Controlled Study of Neurofeedback for Chronic PTSD
Bessel A. van der Kolk, Hilary Hodgdon, Mark Gapen, Regina Musicaro, Michael K. Suvak, Ed Hamlin, Joseph Spinazzola PLOS ONE, 2016; 11(12): e0166752
ABSTRACT
Brain/Computer Interaction (BCI) devices are designed to alter neural signals and, thereby, mental activity. This study was a randomized, waitlist (TAU) controlled trial of a BCI, EEG neurofeedback training (NF), in patients with chronic PTSD to explore the capacity of NF to reduce PTSD symptoms and increase affect regulation capacities. 52 individuals with chronic PTSD were randomized to either NF (n = 28) or waitlist (WL) (n = 24). NF training occurred two times per week for 12 weeks. Post-treatment a significantly smaller proportion of NF (6/22, 27.3%) met criteria for PTSD than the WL condition (15/22, 68.2%). The effect sizes of NF (d = -2.33 within, d = -1.71 between groups) are comparable to those reported for the most effective evidence based treatments for PTSD. Compared with the control group NF produced significant PTSD symptom improvement in individuals with chronic PTSD, as well as in affect regulation capacities. NF deserves further investigation for its potential to ameliorate PTSD and to improve affect regulation, and to clarify its mechanisms of action.
Background research on the condition
The long-term costs of traumatic stress: intertwined physical and psychological consequences
Alexander C. McFarlane World Psychiatry, 2010; 9(1): 3-10
ABSTRACT
The gradual emergence of symptoms following exposure to traumatic events has presented a major conceptual challenge to psychiatry. The mechanism that causes the progressive escalation of symptoms with the passage of time leading to delayed onset post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) involves the process of sensitization and kindling. The development of traumatic memories at the time of stress exposure represents a major vulnerability through repeated environmental triggering of the increasing dysregulation of an individual's neurobiology. An increasing body of evidence demonstrates how the increased allostatic load associated with PTSD is associated with a significant body of physical morbidity in the form of chronic musculoskeletal pain, hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, obesity and cardiovascular disease. This increasing body of literature suggests that the effects of traumatic stress need to be considered as a major environmental challenge that places individual's physical and psychological health equally at risk. This broader perspective has important implications for developing treatments that address the underlying dysregulation of cortical arousal and neurohormonal abnormalities following exposure to traumatic stress.
When repetitive thoughts or behaviors take up a lot of mental space, day-to-day life can get genuinely difficult to manage. Some research points to this being connected to how certain frontal-brain regions are functioning.
Neurofeedback is one tool aimed at training those regions toward more balanced activity, and some clients report a noticeably quieter mind and less need to consciously fight unwanted thoughts. This works best alongside other care, not as a replacement for it.
Broader neurofeedback research
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and the Efficacy of qEEG-Guided Neurofeedback Treatment: A Case Series (PDF)
Tanju Sürmeli and Ayben Ertem Clinical EEG & Neuroscience, Volume 42, No. 3, 2011, pp. 195-201
ABSTRACT
While neurofeedback has been extensively studied in the treatment of many disorders, there have been only three published reports, by D.C. Hammond, on its clinical effects in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). In this paper the efficacy of QEEG-guided neurofeedback for subjects with OCD was studied as a case series. The goal was to examine the clinical course of the OCD symptoms and assess the efficacy of QEEG guided neurofeedback training on clinical outcome measures. Thirty-six drug resistant subjects with OCD were assigned to 9-84sessions of QEEG-guided neurofeedback treatment. Daily sessions lasted 60minutes where 2 sessions with half-hour applications with a 30 minute rest given between sessions were conducted per day. Thirty-three outof36 subjects who received neurofeedback training showed clinical improvement according to the Yale-Brown obsessive-compulsive scale (Y-BOCS). The Minnesota multiphasic inventory(MMPI) was ad-ministered before and after treatment to 17 of the subjects. The MMPI results showed significant improvements not only in OCD measures, but all of the MMP1 scores showed a general decrease. Finally ,according to the physicians’ evaluation of the subjects using the clinical global impression scale (CGI), 33 of the 36 subjects were rated as improved. Thirty-six of the subjects were followed for an average of 26months after completing the study. According to follow-up interviews conducted with them and/or their family members 19of the subjects maintained the improvements in their OCD symptoms. This study provides good evidence for the efficacy of neurofeedback treatment in OCD. The results of this study encourage further controlled research in this area.
